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In this excerpt from his biographical dictionary of Egyptian judges, Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī notes that Ibn Jabr, a fourth/tenth-century Egyptian judge, used to hold court on street corners by simply laying out a carpet and forming a gathering around it. In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this example to call attention to the indeterminate nature of the spatial organization of the judge’s court in the early centuries of Islam. He further notes that not much can be gleaned from the sources about the places in which the early judges held court.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his biographical dictionary of Egyptian judges, Kindī mentions a scribe (kātib) in describing an event that took place in the year 105–6/724. In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this report in the context of a discussion of Q. 50:21 (“Every soul shall come, and with it a driver [sāʾiq] and a witness [shahīd]”). He reports that the term sāʾiqwas interpreted by some as kātib, and he points out that Kindī’s account shows that the kātibwas already an established functionary of the court by the end of the first century of Islam.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In these excerpts, the exegete Thaʿlabī provides interpretations of several Quranic verses pertaining to the heavenly court on the Day of Resurrection. In his commentary on Q. 39:69 (“The earth will shine with the light of its Lord. . . .”), Thaʿlabī presents reports explaining that God will manifest Himself (yatajallā) and illuminate the “open grounds of resurrection” (ʿaraṣāt al-qiyāma) with His light. In explaining Q. 2:210 (“God will come to them in canopies of clouds [fī ẓulalin min al-ghamām]”), Thaʿlabī cites al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī’s view that God is “inside a cover (fī sutra) of clouds, so that the people of the earth do not look at Him.” As for the expression “God will come to them,” Thaʿlabī notes that God’s “coming” (ityān)refers to “recompense” (al-jazāʾ). Recompense is referred to as “coming” just as how “frightening” (takhwīf) and “punishment” (taʿdhīb) are also referred to as “coming” in the story of Nimrod in Q. 16:26 (“Then God came upon their building from the foundations, and the roof fell down upon them from above, and the punishment came upon them when they were not aware”). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses these reports to illustrate Muslim exegetes’ conceptions of the heavenly court and the ways in which they sought to explain away potentially anthropomorphic imagery in the Quran.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his book on the Day of Resurrection, Muḥāsibī describes the scene that will take place on the day itself: the angels surround the judgment scene in rows and the hell-monster Jahannam is seated at the left foot of God’s throne. The Prophet Muḥammad will also be present on the Day of Judgment, interceding for his community. In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this source to highlight parallels between exegetes’ depiction of the heavenly court and the features of earthly courtrooms. He notes that the placement of Jahannam corresponds to the usual position of the executioner on the left of the ruler’s throne in medieval representations of the royal court.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his book of admonitions, Qurṭubī deploys a Prophetic ḥadīth, “This is not a reckoning, it’s a [simple] exposure (ʿarḍ),” to explain Q. 84:7–9 (“As for one who is given his book in his right hand, he will be reckoned with an easy reckoning and will return to his people joyful”). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this source to highlight the ways in which medieval exegetes sought to avoid anthropomorphic interpretations of the Quran. He also points to Qurṭubī’s efforts to alleviate the concern that even true believers will undergo a reckoning (ḥisāb) as indicated inQ. 84:7–9 by arguing that it is only enemies of God who attempt to engage in disputation (jidāl) in order to evade divine judgment.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his book of admonitions, Samarqandī relates the order in which the angels descend to earth: those of the lowest heaven surround the earth, followed by those of each successive heaven, “until there are seven rows (ṣufūf) of angels, enclosing one another in their midst (baʿḍuhum fī jawf baʿḍ).” In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange draws on this source to discuss medieval Muslims’ conceptions of the spatial organization of the heavenly court on the Day of Judgment.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his book of admonitions, Qurṭubī describes four possible occurrences on the “Day of Meeting” (yawm al-talāqī), one of which is a meeting of humankind with their Creator (al-bāriʾ) at the “open grounds of resurrection” (ʿaraṣāt al-qiyāma) and in Paradise (al-janna). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this source to illustrate Muslim conceptions of the Day of Resurrection.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale (ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In these excerpts, the exegete Ṭabarī provides interpretations of several Qurʾānic verses related to the heavenly court on the Day of Resurrection. Commenting on Q. 2:210 (“God will come to them in canopies of clouds”), Ṭabarī cites an opinion from Ibn ʿAbbās comparing clouds to arches (ṭāqāt) and noting that God is in them while being surrounded by angels. He also adduces a report from al-Ḍaḥḥāk, who comments on Q. 69:19 (“The angels will be on its borders and above them eight will carry the throne of your lord”) by detailing how God, the angels, and the hell-monster Jahannam will descend to earth on the Day of Judgment. Further elaborating on what exactly is meant by the expression “God comes to them” in Q. 2:210, Ṭabarī provides four interpretations. The first states that this expression should be understood exactly as God uttered it. The second holds that the expression should not be understood as God moving from one place to another. The third indicates that the expression should be taken to mean that God’s command (amr) comes to the resurrected, just as, when people say, “We are afraid that the Umayyads will come to us,” they actually mean that the Umayyads’ command or judgment (ḥukm) will apply to them. The fourth interpretation explains that it is in fact God’s reward (thawāb), reckoning (ḥisāb), and punishment (ʿadhāb)that will come to the resurrected. In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses Ṭabarī’s statements to highlight the fact that most commentators avoid interpreting verses such as Q. 2:210 in an anthropomorphic manner.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt, commenting on Q. 50:17–18 (“When the two Receivers [al-mutalaqqiyān] receive him . . .”), Thaʿlabī provides details about these two receiver-angels. He presents reports according to which the angel on the right records good deeds, whereas the one on the left records evil deeds. The one on the right is superior to the one on the left. Whenever an evil deed is about to be recorded, the angel on the right often tells the other to wait to see if the person is forgiven. Thaʿlabī relates a ḥadīthon the authority of Abū Umāma saying that whenever the right-hand angel sees a person doing a good deed he records it ten times; 

whenever he sees a bad deed committed he tells the left angel to desist from recording it for seven hours in case the person makes a supplication to God and is forgiven. According to Thaʿlabī, on the Day of Judgment, God consults the scrolls written by these two angels and decides what judgment to render. Thaʿlabī cites a Prophetic ḥadīthon the authority of Abū Hurayra and Anas Mālik, “[The two angels] submit what they have recorded to God. Then He consults [the scrolls]. If He finds a good deed recorded at the beginning and at the end of the scroll, He tells His angels, ‘Bear witness that I have forgiven what My servant has committed in between the beginning and end of this scroll.’” In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange draws on this source to elucidate the procedures of the heavenly court as imagined by exegetes, highlighting God’s use of written evidence. 

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his book of admonitions, Samarqandī details what will happen when divine judgment takes place: the resurrected will face God, who will ask them about what they did “letter by letter” (ḥarfan ḥarfan). In addition, Samarqandī provides several other names for the Day of Resurrection, including “the Day of Discussion” (yawm al-munāqasha), “the Day of Reckoning” (yawm al-muḥāsaba), and “the Day of Interrogation” (yawm al-musāʾala). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses this source to draw parallels between judicial procedures in the heavenly court and those in the earthly court, pointing to Samarqandī’s description of various forms of verbal interaction between God and the resurrected. Samarqandī also presents a tradition in which God says to the resurrected that He has given them advice, so if they see good actions recorded in their registers they should praise God; if they find something else, they have no one to blame but themselves. On the basis of these passages, Lange argues that God’s judgment relies on the consultation of written evidence. He notes, however, that the full admission of written evidence by jurists in earthly courts was a later development in Islamic history.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In these excerpts, Ṭabarī comments on the kinds of “exposures” or “showings” (ʿaraḍāt) that are implied inQ. 69:18 (“On that day you will be exposed; no secret of yours will be concealed”) by presenting the opinions of Ibn Masʿūd, al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, and al-Ḍaḥḥāk. These opinions include terms such as disputation (jidāl), excuses (maʿādhīr), arguments (khuṣūmāt), and the flying of scrolls (taṭāyur al-ṣuḥuf). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange draws parallels between these procedures of heavenly judgment and those encountered in earthly courtrooms to argue that exegetes imagined the heavenly courtroom along lines similar to its earthly counterpart. But there were differences as well. Regarding the procedure for witness testimony as mentioned in Q. 82:11 (“Over you are guardians, noble, recording [kātibīna]”), Ṭabarī explains that these guardians record what humans say and intend. Ṭabarī’s explanation thus distinguishes heavenly judgment from earthly judgment, in which intentions are not taken into account. Lange also argues that exegetes such as Ṭabarī made sure to avoid anthropomorphic interpretations of the verses. For instance, Ṭabarī deploys a Prophetic ḥadīth, “This is not a reckoning, it’s a [simple] exposure (ʿarḍ),” to avoid interpreting Q. 84:7–9 (“As for one who is given his book in his right hand, he will be reckoned with an easy reckoning and will return to his people joyful”) in anthropomorphic terms.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt, Ṭabarī comments on the meaning of Q. 50:21, “Every soul shall come, and with it a driver (sāʾiq) and a witness (shahīd).” Ṭabarī adduces reports on the authority of Qatāda and Mujāhid specifying what the “driver” (sāʾiq) is. For Qatāda, the sāʾiqis one who drives people to their reckoning (ḥisāb), whereas Mujāhid identifies the sāʾiqas a scribe (kātib). In his chapter comparing earthly justice with heavenly justice in the early Islamic imagination in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Christian Lange uses these reports to highlight parallels between the functionaries of the heavenly court and those found in earthly courtrooms, noting that Qatāda’s interpretation of sāʾiq brings to mind a court sheriff (jilwāz) who coerces recalcitrant litigants to appear before a judge, while Mujāhid’s scribe was an established functionary of the court by the end of the first century of Islam. Nevertheless, there were also more abstract presentations that aimed to avoid interpreting the verse in anthropomorphic terms. Ṭabarī provides an alternative report on the authority of Mujāhid that claims that the people are actually “driven” to God’s command (amr).

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt, the historian Ibn al-Athīr describes Aḥmad (I) b. Asad, the Sāmānid governor of Samarqand, as a learned and pious ruler. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow uses the examples of the learned and pious Sāmānid and Ṭāhirid rulers to supply context for Pseudo-Māwardī’s stress on the need for the ruler to cultivate religious knowledge. 

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

These excerpts from Ibn al-Nadīm’sindex of Arabic books list two books that the Sāmānid prince Ismāʿīl, who was described as learned and pious, committed to memory shortly after beginning his education in adab: Ibn Qutayba’s Adab al-kātiband Abū ʿUbayd’s Gharīb al-ḥadīth. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow points to Ismāʿīl as an example of a “semiprofessional” religious scholar.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his biographical dictionary of notable individuals, Ibn Khallikān mentions the example of the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph, ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, who consulted his judge Shurayḥ b. al-Ḥārith b. Qays al-Kindī and adhered to Shurayḥ’s ruling. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow cites this report as an example of a model ruler who was willing to defer to the judgments of others even in disputes involving himself.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt from his biographical dictionary of the religious scholars of Samarqand, the sixth/twelfth-century scholar Nasafī mentions the ḥadīthactivity of Aḥmad b. Asad’s sons, claiming that at least four of them transmitted ḥadīths, some from their father. One of the latter ḥadīthfeatures the Prophet Muḥammad saying, “When a man dies, his deeds come to an end, except for three: knowledge by which people benefit, continuous charity [in his name], and a righteous son who prays for him.” Nasafī also cites an anecdote concerning Aḥmad b. Asad’s son Naṣr, who was able to verify a waqf document and implement it in the correct manner. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow uses this example to identify the types of legal issues in which a ruler might find it necessary to intervene using his religious knowledge.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

This excerpt from Ibn Qutayba’s encyclopedic work Kitāb ʿUyūn al-akhbārquotes the correspondence of the second Rightly Guided Caliph, ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb, with his governor Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī. Among other duties, ʿUmar urges Abū Mūsā to deal equitably with men and to employ his own understanding (fahm) to resolve uncertainties in matters that are not addressed in the Quran or the Sunna. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow refers to this report as an example of a model appointment by a past caliph.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

This passage from the beginning of Māwardī’s Tashīl al-naẓar wa- taʿjīl al-ẓafar (“The Facilitation of Reflection and the Hastening of Victory”), a work on statecraft and governance, conveys  a notion of justice that prioritizes moderation, balance, and harmony. Māwardī draws a connection between the sharīʿaand the codes of conduct of past civilizations. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow uses this passage to argue that Māwardī paid great attention to ancient wisdom when writing about the principles of rulership. The text demonstrates Māwardī’s acknowledgment that the political experiences of the past, diverse as they might be, do coincide with the sharīʿa.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.

In this excerpt, Jāḥiẓ quotes a letter from the second Rightly Guided Caliph, ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb, to the first Umayyad caliph, Muʿāwiya, who was at the time governor of Damascus, advising him regarding his obligations when judging between men. In her analysis of Islamic mirrors-for-princes literature on judging in Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, Louise Marlow uses ʿUmar’s example to discuss judicial appointments by caliphs.

This source is part of the Online Companion to the book Justice and Leadership in Early Islamic Courts, ed. Intisar A. Rabb and Abigail Krasner Balbale(ILSP/HUP 2017)—a collection of primary sources and other material used in and related to the book.